Macroeconomic Outlook for Oil Prices Owing to Unrest in the Middle Essay

Macroeconomic Outlook for Oil Prices Owing to Unrest in the Middle East - Essay Example So if for example, we choose to use oil as source of energy instead of thermal or wind, we are trading off thermal or wind for oil as source of energy. Economics is also about cost and benefit analysis. This is because when we try to solve our economic problems and make choices, we look at it through economic perspective by comparing the costs and benefits of our choices. By using oil for energy source means that its costs and benefits are favorable over the other alternatives, thermal and wind sources. B. Market, Demand and Supply Just like any good in the market, oil demand and supply are affected by several factors in the market. Any change in its demand and supply will affect its price and its impact will be felt by the whole economy as well. 1. Market Market is simply a mechanism or arrangement which brings buyers or demanders and sellers or suppliers of a good or service into contact with one another (McConnell and Brue 2002, 49). In this article, we will be analyzing the oil m arket, meaning the mechanism or arrangement where the exchange happens between the buyers and sellers of oil. Buyers or demanders are the ones who are willing and able to exchange their money for oil. On the other hand, sellers or suppliers are those who are willing and able to exchange their product which is oil for money. 2.Demand The report cited that the EIA forecasted demand for oil is usually in the middle of OPEC and EIA demand outlooks. Demand refers to the quantities of a specific good or service that people are willing to purchase at any given price during a specified time period, given other things being constant (Miller 2004, 99). When taken singly, it is referred to as the... This essay presents a comprehensive analysis of the factors, determining the oil price and its volumes of deliveries against the background of worsening political situation in the Middle East. Market is simply a mechanism or arrangement which brings buyers or demanders and sellers or suppliers of a good or service into contact with one another. Demand refers to the quantities of a specific good or service that people are willing to purchase at any given price during a specified time period, given other things being constant. Supply is the amount of a particular good or service a seller or supplier is willing and able to produce and make available for sale at specific price and time. The total of all the supply available in a market will be the market supply Prices affect market demand and supply but there are other factors present in the market that can cause changes and can determine market demand and supply. The surplus in oil stocks was forecasted because the demand is at slower rate than the production. So, if the oil suppliers will continue producing oil at the same rate as before, they will be producing more than what the oil demanders are willing to buy from them. This situation will result to a surplus of oil in the market. To at least decrease the amount of surplus and bring the production near to equilibrium, OPEC members agreed to cut their supply by setting output quotas. The expectations about the future economic condition cause consumers to cut their spendings.

How does the school X break down the language barriers for EAL Literature review

How does the school X break down the language barriers for EAL students in science lessons - Literature review Example ntially, due to the diverse population, teachers face a difficult challenge of teaching science to students with limited knowledge of the English language. It is important for teachers to identify ways of combating the language barrier so effectively facilitate students’ simultaneous acquisition of academic content. The use of instructional interventions facilitates learning of EAL students. Cummins observes that effective language interventions for ESL students are built on 3-pillars, that is, activating prior knowledge, access content and extending language (Cummins 1). Accessing prior knowledge involves utilising the student’s prior knowledge so as to facilitate learning. The author hypothesises that students tend to construct meaning to a scientific text by â€Å"bringing their prior knowledge of language, science, and of the world in general to the text† (Cummins 1). Therefore, by activating the students’ prior knowledge, teachers are able to validate ESL students’ background experiences and affirm their cultural knowledge. Moreover, through the use of methods such as visuals, dramatisation or other language-oriented activities, teachers can clarify the meanings of concepts and words thereby making the content accessible (Cummins 2). The students’ visualisation can be enhanced through the use of models and analogies in the curriculum (EMA 2002:5). Arguably, models provide a scientific representation of abstract ideas and complex relationships that enable the EAL students unlock their potential in science while at the same time developing their scientific literacy (EMA 2002:5). According to EMA teachers, by actively engaging students in the use of models and analogies, EAL students can communicate their ideas confidently using scientific terminology. Moreover, teachers can encourage students to devise their models so as to facilitate understanding of the curriculum. Teachers play a detrimental role in assisting EAL students. In a research carried

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay One of the grimmest predictions about the future was described by Robert Putnam in his work on social capital. He envisaged low likelihood of participation in community life, smaller groups of friends, even less happiness, and lower perceived quality of life (Putnam, 1995). Furthermore, the enthusiasts of globalization and internet predicted that since people do not have to be together in order to work together, so simply they will not be (Florida, 2003). Both of these statements are deemed fallacious when recent innovative developments like coworking spaces are considered. Instead of dividing people and further rupturing community life, they reintroduce collaboration and community building through establishing an innovative office design that is being implemented worldwide. This paper will be based on theoretical definition of social movement by Mario Diani (2000). The reasoning why this definition is the most useful will be presented in following sections. Then, Dianis (2000) defining attributes will be applied to coworking as a movement, and from this analysis, the conclusion will naturally flow that the following thesis is supported: coworking can be seen as a social movement because it satisfies its definitional elements i.e. networks of informal integration, shared beliefs and solidarity, and collective action. For the analysis of coworking, mixed methodology will be used: informal observation and interviews at three coworking spaces: betahaus Berlin, Hub Amsterdam, Coworking Cologne, and one emerging coworking space Hub Berlin. Additionally, available secondary sources will be analyzed: research and case studies present in literature, internet network data, websites, and forums. The focus will be, however, on the internet sources due to the novel ty and continuous transformations of the movement. Coworking has been present for centuries, but the first forms of collaboration appeared in the beginning of the 20th century. Artists from around the world gathered in Paris to live and work. One of the establishments, La Ruche, was created by Alfred Boucher to accommodate live/work space for artists. The place became a community and was centred on work of its residents (Jones, Sundsted, Bacigalupo, 2009). Bizzarri (2010) mentions associated offices that appeared in United States of America during the crisis of 1929. These offices gathered workers from the same or various professions working in one office as a cost-cutting strategy. She links the crisis of 1929 to the recession of 2008 as a catalyst of bourgeoning coworking spaces around the world (Bizzarri, 2010). The term coworking was first used by Bernie DeKoven in 1999 to describe virtual connectivity i.e. online tools of collaboration (DeKoven, 2000). In a context of a physical space, it was used by Brad Neuberg in 2005 (Alas, 2010) even though coworking spaces, in fact, already existed before that time. The vigorous spread of coworking did not start until the already mentioned crisis of 2008. Nowadays, it is extremely hard to assess the size of the movement with different incarnations of coworking emerging. For example, Centre for Social Innovation in Toronto was launched in 2004 and merges both coworking philosophy and multi-tenant nonprofit centre principles (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010). What exactly is coworking? It can be used in three different ways as Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) state: [As] a proper noun to describe a movement the core values of coworking are A verb to describe an activity Im coworking with my friends at local cafe. An adjective to describe a space Souk is a coworking space in Portland' (p. 8). Movement Coworking movement has many principles that are shared between its members. The main value is that coworking spaces are about social connectedness, gathering, sharing, and collaborating. There are, however, a number of conditions that must be satisfied, in order for a viable coworking space to operate. Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) describe it as a coworking recipe: Start with community. Blend like-minded people of different backgrounds together thoroughly. Add openness. Share ideas, thoughts, knowledge and problems in equal parts. Sprinkle collaboration on top. Ingredients will meld together to create new flavour. Add healthy amounts of sustainability. This will help maintain the recipes structure and prevent it from falling apart. Wrap in accessibility. Make sure all ingredients are given proper opportunity to interact. Enjoy! (p. 15) The movement build on such principles also is directed against isolation that streams from the type of work the coworkers are performing. Usually, it is some form of knowledge creation, data transformation, or a creative industry-related work. Sometimes, the members of the movement express unacceptability of corporate culture and its work structure (typical 9-5 jobs in artificially separated cubicles). Coworking as a movement has either outspoken or implied social change as a value. First of all, it is changing work/live relationship, and leads to sustainability in many ways. Second, the coworking members work often on projects related to social innovation and change. The honourable mention of social change-related coworking spaces is network of the Hubs (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010)Â  [2]Â  . Bizzarri (2010) underlines that one of the innovative factors of coworking is the sociality of the work and the value of relations face to face (p. 204). This aspect is crucial in coworking movement, because its enthusiasts aim at creating a thriving community rather than simply a workplace. Activity As previously mentioned, coworking incorporates individuals with mostly knowledge creation type of work and designers or artists. In most cases, they are not employed by the same organization, but sometimes small businesses are a part of a coworking space. Additionally, there is a high degree of independent work involved, but there is also a collaboration factor. People from different professions and types of work engage in dialogue, exchange ideas, and add an interesting perspective to problems defined by others, in order to create innovative ideas and become more productive. Coworking space becomes a place where unlimited intellectual resources are stored, and it multiplies ones network of professional and informal connections which is beneficial to individual work life and mental health. Various individuals have different patterns of use of coworking spaces. Freelancers sometimes need only a desk with internet connection and a telephone. Artists might need bigger space and flexibility. Some might use coworking spaces on a full-time or part-time basis, and some only for once in a while drop-in sessions. These offices also target people (so called nomad workers) who travel and frequently change their place of living so they cannot maintain an office. This initiative has also a myriad of occupations, and they include professionals from diverse sectors. Additionally, they come from different organizational structures: start-ups that cannot afford and office yet, small businesses that choose not to have own office, non-profits, freelancers, sometimes individuals that work for large companies as consultants, etc. Space The organization of the shared working environment is very important for a proper operation of a coworking office. Hibbert, Kimble, and White (2010) from the School of Architecture and Design at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee wrote an engaging manual on designing a coworking space with a number of technical pointers. In general, it should be flexible and have an open design, so it can accommodate many different events and activities through moving furniture, and separators that play a role of walls. Additionally, coworkers should have access to it at any time of day or night which sometimes is not possible due to security concerns. Coworking spaces usually have following amenities: internet, photocopy and printing, fax machines, mailbox, kitchen facilities, meeting rooms, coffee/tea machines, storage, and sometimes audio-visual equipment. Spaces at different stages of development might not have all of mentioned amenities or have more advance office equipment. Coworking spaces can accommodate members by offering them private storage place, or sometimes offer them separate office depending on the characteristics of the space. Different patterns of use mean different level of financial contribution for the maintenance of the office. Coworking spaces have a tiered system depending on the amount of time spent at the office, and sometimes the area needed for operations. Usually, coworking spaces do not make a profit, and at times they can run only with the help of grants and subsidies. Social Movement Definition A lot of social and political phenomena have been called social movements in the past, many of them not rightfully. There are so many theories that it is very difficult to pinpoint the exact definition of a social movement. Theoretical frameworks like collective behaviour, relative deprivation, resource mobilization, rational choice, political opportunity structure, new social movement, political process, and framing, all of them define social movements in diverse ways and focus on their different facets (Pickvance, 2003). Many buzz words surround the term social movement: collective action, social change, status quo, and social conflict among others. These terms are themselves difficult to define. Therefore, the plethora of ambiguities allows for calling numerous phenomena social movements, when they are really not. Mario Diani (2000) in his paper The concept of social movement analyzes four different theories in order to find a common thread between them and to arrive at all-encompassing, but yet detailed definition of the notion. The author bases his definition of collective behaviour perspective (Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian), resource mobilization theory (John McCarthy and Mayer Zald), political process approach (Charles Tilly), and new social movements theory (Alain Tourraine and Alberto Melucci). Some of these theories are contradictory in their assumptions and definitional elements. For example, Charles Tillys definition is very constrictive while it focuses on the excluded as the ones trying to get access to established polity and political process (Tilly, 1978 cited in Diani, 2000) which would be only one type of social movement according to other theories. Melluci (1977, cited in Diani, 2000), conversely, sees them as not always concurrent with political conflict, but that they might be dormant and engaged in cultural production. Diani (2000) posits that all of these theories focus on different aspects of social movements; resource mobilization theory and the political process approach look at their development rather than the causes of their emergence. New social movement theory tries to place social movements within larger structural and cultural changes (Diani, 2000). Even though these four theories might be different in certain aspects, Diani finds four common threads that all of the theories emphasize: Networks of informal interaction Shared beliefs and solidarity Collective action on conflictual issues Action which displays largely outside the institutional sphere and the routine procedures of social life (p.162) The last factor, lack of institutionalization, is disputed by Diani, who believes that some degree of institutionalism might play a role in social movements development while some movement begin in institutionalized organization or maintain the movement in a dormant stage under auspices of an institution still exerting social change and cultural production. Therefore, it is not included in the final definition. Diani presents a caveat that the institutionalization is a factor that should be closely observed because it might overpower the influence of a social movement. Additionally, an important distinction is made: while Sierra Club might be a part of an environmental social movement, itself it is not social movement and should not be regarded as such. Furthermore, political parties fulfill the requirements of Dianis definition, but he underlines that they act at the level of interest representation, and this functional level does not let them to be regarded as social movements. Fro m the discussion on these aspects and other implications of theoretical boundaries, Diani (2000) arrives at following definition: Social movements consist in networks of informal interaction between a plurality of individuals, groups and organizations, engaged in a political and/or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity (p. 168). Diani (2000) disregards a number of characteristics in his definition that are usually associated with social movements i.e. extra-institutional tactics, civil unrest, disruptive political protests, use of power, etc. He claims that these aspects are simply characteristics of the varieties of social movements, and should not be included in the main and all-encompassing definition. Similar to Diani, definition of Goodwin and Jasper (2009) sees longevity of a movement more important than protests or riots: Social movements are conscious, concerted, and sustained efforts by ordinary people to change some aspect of their society by using extra-institutional means. They are more conscious and organized than fads and fashions. They last longer than a single protest or riot. There is more to them than formal organizations, although such organizations usually play a part. They are composed mainly of ordinary people as opposed to army officers, politicians, or economic elites. They are protesting against something. (Goodwin Jasper, 2009, p. 3) Therefore, the definitions are comparable and do not invalidate other theorists claims. In some degree, Goodwin and Jasper (2009) put more importance on extra-institutional means, protests, and riots; however, this does not make Dianis claims (2000) unsound, but further strengthens its validity and all-encompassing nature; in effect, this theoretical basis will be used to analyze coworking as a social movement. Urban Social Movements Urban social movements are a type of social movements that focus on structural transformation of the urban system and space (Castells, 1977 cited in Pickvance, 2003). Interest in this type of movements has been quite strong, but partially separated from the main discourse on social movements. As Pickvance (2003) discusses, urban social movements theories place emphasis on the effects rather than mobilization factors or the interaction between social movement and political systems. The intrinsic focus of urban social movements theories is the effects of various events, protests, and exposure to given principles and values. Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) elaborates that the effects are rather seen in their potential rather than real outcomes. In other words, immediate consequences might be limited and not identifiable; however, changes in consciousness among participants and potential future support may be favourable to the viability of a social movement and the actual long term social changes. For this reason, writing on urban social movements was developing separately from the mainstream discussion on social movements, even though the main influence that contributed to its development was the rise of interest in new social movements. Pickvance (2003) elaborates: Although some writers have classed urban movements as new social movements, more usually urban movements have been categorized as an old social movement like the labour movement, because of the allegedly material character of their demands (p. 106) This typological distinction is quite important for the theoretical basis against which social movement might be tested against. It shows that social movements theories are diverse and that they describe approaches that result in dissimilar definitions. This predicament is important when discussing a given social movement that might fulfill the definitional elements of one theory and not the other. It also demonstrates that some social movement theories are developing outside the mainstream theoretical discussion, and a collective attempt at deriving a uniform definition is simply not present or still in very preliminary stages. Using Dianis definition (2000) presents a number of dangerous predicaments. It might seem too broad and all-encompassing. It puts emphasis on the common threads of the four main theories and presents relatively detailed boundaries of its definitional elements, however, there is still a degree of uncertainty and vulnerability in its possible use. Additionally, there is a tendency to use certain theories for movements with which we agree and different ones with which we disagree. In case of Diani, his definition is general, and different nuances are not accounted for in it, therefore, it might be quite unproblematic to recognize any movement or trend that resembles social movement as one of them. Application of the theoretical framework Common elements found by Dianis (2000) in the four main theories of social movements are to be examined in this section and applied to coworking as a potential social movement. Definitional nuances and evidence how coworking serves these elements are to be presented in an organized manner. First, coworking is recognized as built on the basis of networks of informal interaction. Second, shared beliefs of coworking as a movement are discussed: what they are and how they are implemented. Third, it will be shown to that extent social movements partake in collective action on conflictual issues and potential conflicts and adversaries will be identified. Finally, the relationship of the movement with institutional aspect and routine procedures of social life will be examined. Even though this last theme is not included in the final definition presented by Diani (2000), its evaluation is essential while it helps assessing coworking as a social movement against the theories that value lack o f institutionalization as an important feature of the definition. Networks of informal interaction First element of the definition concerns the relationship between its members: [it] is a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups, and/or organizations (Diani, 2000, p. 8). All thinkers in Dianis analysis realize the importance of networks. Also Goodwin and Jasper (2009) and Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) recognize informal interaction between people as an important requirement for a social movement. Especially, McCarthy and Zald (1977, cited in Diani, 2000) talk about different categories that characterize the organization of social movements: they mention social movement organizations, constituents, adherents, and bystander publics, all of them important members adding to the social movement. Diani (2000) characterizes this element as: Tightly clustered networks which promote the circulation of essential resources for an action (information, expertise, material resources) as well as of broader systems of meaning. Thus, networks contribute both to creating the preconditions for mobilisation and to providing the proper setting for the elaboration of specific world-views and life-styles (p. 163). Theorists in the recent time were discussing a lot about information flows in a network society. Castells (2001, cited in Bizzarri, 2010) pointed to the information and communication technologies as changing the relation between discretion and control in the organization of working. The most focus is placed on the value of knowledge, the role of knowledge as capacity of action, the openness, the mobility, the collaboration, the accumulation of social and cultural capital, the flexibility of workers to adapt their skills to different situations and jobs (Bizzarri, 2010, p. 198). Many pointed this innovativeness and its importance in workplaces. This notion is recently present everywhere, governments switch to network governance, participatory decision making, and horizontal collaboration. In this organizational setup, people from different sectors, organizations, occupations, and departments work together (citation needed somewhere here). A lot of these collaboration methods are cente red on the abilities of information and communication technologies. Coworking is based on this idea. It brings people with different experiences to a common space to work and socialize, but the technology is only a tool not a mean in coworking space. Centre for Social Innovation (2010) in the booklet Emergence stresses the importance of relying on a network as a strategy of well operating coworking space. The organizational design is structured on production, distribution, and access of information, all of the members of the space are supposed to learn from each other. It resembles a bit wikipidia model, or open-source software, where all of the interested individual contribute to create and accomplish bigger projects. Coworkers work on individual work assignments, and such an open structure of their work is simply not possible, however, there exists possibility to constantly consult with other and collaborate on each others project. People coexist in a physical space and that aspect is very important. Similarly to government-made horizontal collaboration, coworking spaces have usually flat organizational structure (Bizzarri, 2010), therefore there is no decision makers, all of the decisions are made communally. In some spaces, the governance structure might be rather heterarchycal, and it will have some members overseeing certain aspects of a coworking space, so, for example, there will be a person dealing with administrative side of coworking space operations, there might be a communications person, technical maintenance, cleanliness, etc. However, these positions are not introduced in order to create a hierarchy with some people in power or not, but is done to ensure adequate operations of a space. Many of the changes that are happening in organization theory come from a bigger movement of industrial changes that call for a networked interaction. Wilson (1995) underlines that the geography of a new competitive model is more flexible than mass production and involes creation of netoworks which is so important to innovation diffusion (p. 646). In fact, industrial districts that aggregate small and medium sizes enterprises are perfectly able to compete with large commercial firms (Wilson, 1995). This is due to their network character and sharing resources. Even though those firms might be centred in a given geographical region, they are still open for the global influences. Wilson (1995) mentions endogenous development approach which emphasizes the unique factors of the spatial milieu in which the activity occurs, while at the same time recognising the embeddedness in the larger structures (p. 649). Coworking is a space that does not enclose the members because their work focuses on external environments: clients, companies they work for, families, and friends. It is a system that brings them together and creates a community that shares many things. Coworking is not only about working in a shared space; it has also a social element to it. Endogenous development must include non-economic values a behavioural and socio-psychological change from homo economicus to homo sociales. John Friedman (1988) reflects the same idea when he calls for a transcendence of the division between life space and economic space (Wilson, 1995, p. 650). This is very important for people at coworking spaces. Coworking space is not only a place to work at and collaborate, it is also a place where people become socially involved with each other on a higher level than usual work places. Many coworking spaces have once or twice a week common meals, some of them even introduce that custom daily. This has profound effect on their relations. Addionally, coworking spaces introduce workshops and events that are not targeted at professional development only. They are also open to the community; so for example, they will invite a yoga instructor, or will have workshops on mental health, leadership, good food and living. In some degree, this agrees with Wilson (1995) discussion of regulationist writing that shows that the wage and strength of the union will decrease and more pressure will be focused on human development and less tangible factors than productivity: behaviour, cultural and social changes. In short, it is the beginning of change fr om the mechanistic and deterministic to holistic and interconnected (Wilson, 1995, pp. 653-654). Coworking spaces have this idea embedded in them. They are not workspaces anymore; they are a way of life. Shared beliefs and solidarity Social movements are characterized by the fact that its members share beliefs and a sense of belongingness which is definitely visible in coworking spaces. The boundaries of coworking spaces are not defined by the physical borders of the office, but by the collective identity shared by people who are members, visitors or simply supporters of a coworking space. Diani (2000) describes this aspect as: Collective identity is both a matter of self- and external definition. Actors must define themselves as part of a broader movement and, at the same time, be perceived as such, by those within the same movement, and by opponents and/or external observers. (p. 164) Collective identity helps to define the boundaries of the movement, but does not mean that the movement is homogenous. There is still a plethora of ideas, orientation, opinions, and perspectives in the coworking movement that can come from the shear fact that coworkers come from different occupations and are exposed to different theories, experiences, and perspectives. Citizen Space is one of the first coworking spaces. It was created in San Franscisco by the movement leaders Tara Hunt, Chris Messina and Brad Neuberg. Its website has a section entitled Our Philosophy and it contains Collaboration: One of the great benefits of working in a coworking space is that you will meet all sorts of people with all sorts of knowledge. Openness: We believe in transparency and openness. In a world where people are free, but ideas are not, only a few benefit. When ideas are free, everyone benefits. Therefore, we encourage open spaces and discussions. Sorry, no NDAs allowed.Community: We thrive on connections and mutual support here. It is important that everyone give into as well as benefit from the strong (international) community coworking has become. Accessibility: In order to be fully open, we must make the effort to be accessible to all. This means that we endeavor to create both a financially and a physically accessible space. We are committed to this prin ciple and welcome feedback on how we can make it even more accessible. All of those values are shared between other members of the coworking movement. These are basic principles that spring from the model work that is present in the coworking spaces. Collaboration cannot be closed; it always has an open model. As Wilson (1995) named future innovations as a new sense of purpose and process on a local level (p. 645), this is in fact what joins those people together in a relatively uniform and with minimum conflict. The people that surround the movement are mostly creative workers that are new leaders in todays economy. They are mostly self-employed people, nonprofits, innovation searching individuals who in turn advance urban movements and economies (Schreck, 2006). This class of people, knowledge creators, Florida (2003) calls the creative class. They drive innovation and current global economic growth trends (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010). They are employed in many professions, but their main purpose is to create new ideas, technology and creative cont ent. In addition to changing the landscape of the economy, knowledge creators seek new ways to configure their work environment to promote individuality and allow for more flexibility. They demand the autonomy of working anywhere and the social interaction of a traditional office. (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010, p. 43) In general, it is the members of creative class who are the most prone to join the coworking movement. Additionally there is a degree of entrepreneurship present in coworking spaces. A lot of members are entrepreneurs, some of them focus on social change. It was the most visible in Hub Amsterdam where the wall of members highlighted the social change focus of its members. Coworking itself is entrepreneurial initiative, and therefore it characterizes its members. Diani (2000) puts a pressure on the entrepreneurial aspects of social movements by citing Gusfield (1981): Social movements condition and help constitute new orientations on existing issues, in so far as they contribute to the existence of a vocabulary and an opening of ideas and actions which in the past was either unknown of unthinkable (Gusfield, 1981, p. 325 cited in Diani, 2000, p. 9) Conclusion Paragraph of this section Collective action on conflitual issues Diani (2000) finds that all four theories share also an aspect of collective action on conflictual issues. He writes: Social movement actors are engaged in political and /or cultural conflicts, meant to promote or propose social change either at the systemic or non-systemic level (Diani, 2000, p. 166) This factor consists of two parts: collective action and conflictual issues and theorists differ in what exactly this means. Some theorists put a specific emphasis on conflict situation as a fundamental element of the concept (Turaine, Melucci, Tilly). Other look at the social movement as leading to social change and that is, according to them, the main aspect of the concept (Turner and Killian, McCarthy and Zald, Pickvance and Castells). There is a number of ways we can understand conflict. It can be a conflict on political, social, or cultural sphere, but it does not necessarily have to engage in an open conflict, protests, and active dispute at the systemic level. It might be also conflict with political decision makers, civil rights dispute, etc., but Diani (2000) also mentions: Several authors maintain that the true bulk of social movement experience has to be found in the cultural sphere; what is challenged is not only the uneven distribution of power and/or economic goods, but socially shared meaning s as well, that is the ways of defining and interpreting reality. Social movements tend to focus more and more on self-transformation. (p. 165) Therefore, social movements focus as well on conflicts that arise in a private sphere, on the individual level. It attacks the way we think about ourselves, our self-definition, and lifestyle choices. The second part of the actor is collective action which can be understood as some sort of activity that leads to achievement of a goal or a set of goals by more than one person, in this case, a social movement. Diani (2000) does not address the issue whether the activity should be overt and proclaimed. Dormant social movements might not actively engage in open collective action, but might affect individuals in a more covert way, similarly to how Pickvance (2003) describes the effects of urban social movements. This might not be an issue for Diani (2000) however; some caution will be taken when a favourable judgement is granted in the absence of full evidence. In regards to conflict and collective action, coworking as a social movement has not, in some degree, openly proc

What Should Be the Relationship Between Teachers and Students? :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

What Should Be the Relationship Between Teachers and Students? Classroom by definition is a place where students meet to study the same subject. A teacher, who took a leadership role in leading discussions and getting students to be involved in learning the subject taught, controlled this environment at one time. Now a days, the role of a teacher in a classroom environment has been reversed. Students are allowed to take the leadership role in creating and leading discussions. Just as roles of the teacher and a student have changed in a classroom over the years, so have the relationships between a student and a teacher. Many years ago, as we have read and heard, student teacher relationships have been very formal, distant, and the teacher's judgement was accepted. With almost 21 years of experience as a student, I have come to learn the relationship between student and teacher can vary depending on many characteristics. Since everyone has a different background and a different character, it is almost difficult to say how a teacher should relate t o a student or vice versa. I do believe that student teacher relationship should be professional, yet not so professional that students fear to approach. Teacher, student relationship should be formal, yet inviting. Teacher student relationship should definitely not be judgmental, and it should allow the teacher on her or his part to take time to get to know the student. At one time, about six years ago I took an economics course, which was a lower division course, it was apparently taught by one of the professors who had a very reputable standing in the department of economics. I would never forget how this professor always came to work looking very professional, wearing attire that did not seem to suit the environment. He was overly professional looking compared to other professors on campus, so it made him stand out. This look apparently had students talking about how unapproachable this professor was. No one dared to approach and ask him a question because it would only make anyone appear foolish if they did. His attitude at the beginning of the year had also thrown off many students. The fact that he would say to a student just coming into the classroom wearing his hat backwards, "Those who wear their hats backwards, their brain is backwards!" I personally did not get to know this professor because it was obvious that his intent was to just lect ure and leave.

Tinbergen’s Four Questions Regarding Orca Behaviour

Introduction The type of communication used to transmit information is closely related to the animal’s lifestyle and environment. This can be seen in most terrestrial mammals which are nocturnal so use olfactory and auditory which work as well in the dark as they do during the day. Visual communication would be relatively ineffective in this lifestyle. In contrast humans are diurnal and use primarily visual and auditory signals for communication, but miss many chemical cues which many other mammals base their behaviour upon.Marine mammals often need to communicate great distances, and the water does not support visual cues over great distance. This is why whales and dolphins use primarily auditory signals. Auditory signals can travel great distances and travel four and a half times faster in water than in air (Ford, 1984). Killer whales or Orca (Orcinus orca) are very social dolphins and live in pods often consisting of family members from between four up to fifty for resident ial whales while transient pods normally are only between two and five animals (Ford, 1989).These pods communicate with each other by use of echolocation clicks, tonal whistles and pulsed calls (Deecke et al. , 2000). The three main noises have very different uses from each other. Clicks can either be produced as a single click or produced in rapid succession. Single clicks are generally used for navigation and collection of clicks and whistles are thought to be used for communication amongst members of the pod. Pulses are believed, with the assistance of single clicks, to be the method used by orcas to distinguish objects and discriminate prey (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Residential orcas feed on fish, and can be frequently heard communicating with the clicks, whistles and calls because the fish have very poor hearing abilities (Wilson, 2002). The vocal behaviour of transient killer whales is quite different with the vocal communication consisting of occasional clicks and pulses (Deecke et al. , 2000). The only occasion where transient orcas display significant amounts of vocal activity is when they are active on the surface or recently after a kill.The reasons for this reduction of noise could be due to many factors which can be seen in other species interactions and behaviour. Using ‘Tinbergen’s four questions’, I will explain what necessity for this behaviour and what the origins of the silent behaviour may have been. Tinbergen’s Four Questions In 1963 Nikolaas Tinbergen published a paper â€Å"On aims and methods of ethology†. In this paper he discussed how he believed any question regarding animal behaviour should be broken down into four different questions.These four questions could be divided into two categories, evolutionary (ultimate) explanations and proximate explanations. The evolutionary explanations, which refer to the population, include evolution or phylogenetic determinants and survival value or adaptive significance. The phylogenetic determinants refer to all evolutionary explanations which are not covered by adaptive significance. These may include random processes including mutation and changes in the environment which could have impacts on the population resulting in a specific behaviour adaptation.The adaptive significance closely follows Charles Darwin’s work on natural selection where it is explained that an animal’s form has been altered to function better in the habitat and resulting in a increase in fitness for the individual. The proximate explanations are focused with dealing in terms of the individual as opposed to the population. The two different individual questions proposed by Tinbergen relate to causation and ontogeny. The causation for a display of behaviour relates to the mechanics of the body and which stimuli provides a cue for the animal to display this behaviour.Included in causation is control of hormones, motor control, central-nervous-system control and the ability to process the information obtained through senses. Ontogeny relates to the development of an individual, from conception til death. This may include a experience or a environmental factor which occurs and changes the behaviour of the animal, including learned behaviour from another individual. Causation ? Figure 1: An illustration of sound generation, propagation and reception in a killer whale. (WhalesB. C. com)The nasopharyngeal anatomy of cetaceans is strongly modified comparing with terrestrial mammals. They have one impair respiratory hole at the top of the head. It is closed near the surface by dense musculocutaneous crimps arranged so, that the salient of one of them enters into the dimple of another. They form a peculiar lock preventing the water from penetrating into respiratory tract. Above the skull around of nose passage there is a system of pneumatic sacs, connected with nose passage (Barrett-Lennard et al. , 1996).In 1964 A. V. Jablokov suppose d that sounds could be produced by forcing air through these nasal sacs. Air is forced past a set of finely striated muscular plugs or lips that vibrate or slap against each other as the lips are forced apart by the stream of air and then slapped shut by muscular tension (Ford, 1989). Transient killer whales are often very difficult to track when under water as they are typically silent. Often communicating with each other with just a single click, known as a cryptic click (Deecke et al. , 2000).The only time that the killer whales produce large amounts of vocal activity was when milling about on the surface or after killing a marine mammal. Transients have been found to only use four to six discrete calls which are not shared with the resident pods (Deecke et al. , 2004). Ontogeny Like other aspects of learning in mammalian society, I hypothesise that the newborn calves will be taught the ability for vocalisation by its parent or other pod members. There have been many studies on k iller whale vocalisations in different parts of the world including Canada (Ford, 1984), Alaska (Yurk et al. 2002) and Norway (Matkin, 1988). Each study showed that every pod has its own distinctive repertoire of discrete calls, often this phenomenon is referred to as vocal dialects. The differences in vocal repertoires can be the result of geographic isolation and when this occurs it is not dialects that are being represented but â€Å"geographic variations of vocal repertoire† (Ford, 1984). The use of repetitive calls and the specific number and type of discrete calls are what are used to classify and compare dialects. Pods often produce between seven and seventeen different types of discrete calls.Some pods share calls and are grouped together as a acoustic clan (Baird et al. , 1988). Different clans might represent different independent maternal lineages, which have persisted for many generations, developing their independent call traditions. Dialects are probably the mea ns by which pod cohesiveness and identity are maintained. Newborn calls manage to produce calls very comparable to their mothers, but the repertoire is very limited. With the arrival of a new calf to the pod, the calls of the pod and particularly the matriarch increase, especially the frequency of pod-specific calls (Ford, 1989).This is widely regarded as the method to which newborns learn the pods dialect. The majority of the learning done by the newborn is a process of imitation and trial and error. The calf does not always learn communication from a parent. In captivity a young whale was observed to have learned the calls of its tank mate, even though it had no relatedness. Survival Value I hypothesise that the because the mammalian predators can hear well under water is the reason why the transient killer whales adopt significantly reduced communication during periods of foraging.Acoustic communication can have great benefits such as organising groups for attacks and avoiding pr edation. As with all behaviour traits there is a trade off. There is a direct cost of energy required to producing the sounds and along with this is the loss of energy from lack of feeding during times of communicating. There is also a indirect cost, especially for transient killer whales, which pass information on to eavesdroppers. Eavesdroppers may include competitors (Hammond et al. , 2003), predators (Hosken et al. 1994) or for transient killer whales alerting potential prey. Various studies have documented the costs from eavesdropping for prey in the case of predators who utilise echolocation. Bats have been documented preying on frogs performing mating calls by eavesdropping on them (Fenton, 2003). Insects have also been noted as being able to avoid predation from bats by listening to their acoustic projections (Rydell et al. , 1995). Communicative vocalizations are usually not essential for prey location unlike echolocation.This is the most likely reason that transient killer whales move in silence or considerably reduced vocal communication while foraging. Evolution I believe that the evolution of marine mammals from a common ancestor hinders the transient killer whales hunting due to the retention of excellent underwater hearing by marine mammals. In Pakistan the discovery of Ambulocetus was remarkable, a three metre long mammal which resembled a crocodile. It is thought to be the transitional fossil starting the mammalian movement towards an aquatic life.By 38 million years ago mammals had fully adapted to a aquatic life with the emergence of Basilosaurus and Dorudon. Although these large marine mammals resembled modern whales and dolphins they lacked the ‘melon organ’ which allows echolocation in their descendants (Ford, et al. , 2000). In the middle of the Oligocene (33 million years ago) a animal called Squalodon is thought to have been the first to use echolocation. With a cranium which was well compressed, and a telescoped rostrum i t displayed a skull similar to modern dolphins.A big problem with the hunting marine mammals is that they all have a common ancestor, and all have retained a common lineage of very good hearing. Fish have poor hearing which allows the residential killer whales to freely use communication when hunting. Transient killer whales have been forced to change this behaviour because of their choice of prey including seals, dolphins, porpoises and whales. With all mammals having good underwater hearing they have been required to adopt a reduced vocal communication when searching for prey. ConclusionI believe that the lack of acoustic communication between transient killer whales is due to the ability of their selected prey being able to hear the clicks, whistles and pulses they generate. These sounds can be heard from over seven kilometres away and marine mammals do react to these calls (Deecke et al. , 2002). In the study by Deecke in 2002, he played the sounds of killer whales near a harbou r seal colony which resulted in most of the seals displaying strong anti-predator behaviour of leaving the water. This suggests that they are able to clearly hear the calls and understand what is generating them.I believe that other marine mammals will react in a similar way. Guinet (1992) observed the vocal patterns of killer whales around the Crozet Archipelago and came to the same result as Deecke (2004) that the killer whales were silent throughout hunting and searching, but once a mammalian kill was made the pod would greatly increase in vocal activity. While it can be a risk to produce noise after killing a prey, for fear of drawing the attention of other predators or scavengers, killer whales are the apex predator and have no natural predators.Resources Baird, R. W, Stacey, P. J. , (1988). Foraging and feeding behaviour of transient killer whales. Whalewatcher vol 22, no. 1:11-15 Barrett-Lennard, L. G. , Ford, J. K. B. , Heise, K. A. , (1996). The mixed blessing of echolocati on: differences in sonar use by fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales. Animal Behaviour, 51: 553-565 Deecke, V. B. , Ford, J. K. B, Sprong, P. (2000). Dialect change in resident killer whales: implications for vocal learning and cultural transmission. Animal Behaviour 60: 629-638 Deecke, V. B. Ford, J. K. B, Slater, P. J. B. (2002). Selective habituation shapes acoustic predator recognition in harbour seals. Nature 420: 170-173 Deecke, V. B. , Ford, J. K. B, Slater, P. J. B. (2004). The vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales: Communicating with costly calls. Animal Behaviour 69: 395-405 Fenton, M. B. (2003). Eavesdropping on the echolocation and social call of bats. Mammal Review 33: 193-204 Ford, J. K. B. (1984). Call traditions and vocal dialects of killer whales (Orcinus orca) in British Columbia. Ph. D. hesis, University of British Columbia Ford, J. K. B. (1989). Acoustic behaviour of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can adian Journal of Zoology 67:727-745 Ford, J. K. B. , Ellis, G. M. , Balcomb, K. C. (2000) Killer whales the natural history and genealogy of Orcinus orca in British Columbia and Washington State. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press Guinet, C. (1992) Comportent de chasse des orques (Orcinus orca) autour des iles Crozet. Canadian journal of Zoology 70: 1656-1667Hammond, T. J. , Bailey, W. J. , (2003) Eavesdropping and defensive auditory masking in an Australian bush cricket, Caedicia (Phaneropterinae: Tettigoniidae: Orthoptera). Behaviour 140: 79-95 Hosken, D. J. , Bailey, W. J. , Oshea, J. E. , Roberts, J. D. (1994) Localization of insect calls by the bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae): a laboratory study. Australian Journal of Zoology 42: 177-184 Matkin, D. (1988) Killer whales of Norway. Homer: North Gulf Oceanic Society Rydell, J. , Jones, G. , Waters, D. 1995) Echolocating bats and hearing moths: who are the winners? Oikos 73: 419-424 Wilson, B. , Dill, L. M. (2002) Pacific herring respond to stimulated odontocete echolocation sounds. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 59: 542-553 Yurk, H, Barrett-Leonard, L. , Ford, J. K. B. Matkin, C. O. (2002) Cultural transmission within maternal lineages: vocal clans in resident killer whales in southern Alaska. Animal Behaviour 63: 1103–1119 Vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales A report on a unique behavioural characteristic By Michael Clark 83787877

On Ageing by Maya Angelou Essay

Warning by jenny joseph is a humorous way of looking towards old age. It is written as a monologue within which the poet describes how she will behave when she is an old woman. In The first stanza she talks about herself and lists all the things she will do when she is old. She says she will wear the colours purple and red which are significant in the fact that they are bright garish colours. The two colours clash with each other and would not be put together by someone who cares about keeping up their appearance. One of the main themes to this poem is the idea of rebelling against the way society expects you to behave and the idea of not conforming therefore she decides to deliberately make a statement with her appearance by wearing clashing colours to show rebellion against the idea of everyone looking the same- everyone conforming. This idea of rebellion is further emphasised when she says â€Å"I shall spend my pension on brandy†¦ and say we’ve no money for butter†. She has decided that she is going to be deliberately difficult and irresponsible. She is desperate to rebel against the norms of responsible adulthood and change the way she has always been † escape from the sobriety of my youth† . The acts she chooses are harmless and humorous and she will be likely to get away with them as people will think she is senile. The fact that all of these things are what she wants to do in the future shows that she has never done this before and so she could be saying that old age is the time for freedom and to escape from the rules in society. However this could also show that she is only able to do these things with the excuse of being elderly. She would never feel comfortable to break the rules without having the excuse of being senile etc hence why she is waiting until old age to do these things showing that she is still trapped in the rules of society. This shows the underlying more depressing image behind the humour that society doesn’t allow for freedom and the message of how the pressure there is to conform prevents you from being yourself. All of the lines in the poem run on with a quick pace into each other reflecting the excitement and anticipation for the things she talks about doing. Throughout she repeats â€Å"and† and â€Å"I† which also adds to the pace and energy of the poem. The second stanza itself is one long sentence in which she directly addresses the reader with words of encouragement. She wants other people to feel and be able to do whatever they like without worrying about the social pressures of conformity, she could be thinking that if everyone does this then eventually those pressures will not be a problem anymore.