Scientific Inventions

ASSEMBLY LINE: Primitive assembly line production was first used in 1901 by Ran some Eli Olds (1864-1950), an early car-maker (he manufactured the Oldsmobile, the first commercially successful American car). Henry Ford (1863-1947) used the first conveyor belt-based assembly-line in his car factory in 1913-14 in Ford's Highland Park, Michigan plant. This type of production greatly reduced the amount of time taken to put each car together (93 minutes for a Model T) from its parts, reducing production costs. Assembly lines are now used in most manufacturing processes. BAEKELAND, L. H. : Leo Hendrik Baekeland (November 14, 1863 – February 23, 1944) was a Belgian-born American chemist who invented Velox photographic paper (1893) and Bakelite (1907), an inexpensive, nonflammable, versatile, and very popular plastic. BAKELITE: Bakelite (also called catalin) is a plastic, a dense synthetic polymer (a phenolic resin) that was used to make jewelry, game pieces, engine parts, radio boxes, switches, and many, many other objects. Bakelite was the first industrial thermoset plastic (a material that does not change its shape after being mixed and heated). Bakelite plastic is made from carbolic acid (phenol) and formaldehyde, which are mixed, heated, and then either molded or extruded into the desired shape. Bakelite was patented in 1907 by the Belgian-born American chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland (November 14, 1863 – February 23, 1944). The Nobel Prize winning German chemist Adolf von Baeyer had experimented with this material in 1872, but did not complete its development or see its potential. Baekeland operated the General Bakelite Company from 1911 to 1939 (in Perth Amboy, N. J. , USA), and produced up to about 200,000 tons of Bakelite annually. Bakelite replaced the very flammable celluloid plastic that had been so popular. The bracelet above is made of â€Å"butterscotch† Bakelite. BAROMETER: A barometer is a device that measures air (barometric) pressure. It measures the weight of the column of air that extends from the instrument to the top of the atmosphere. There are two types of barometers commonly used today, mercury and aneroid (meaning â€Å"fluid less†). Earlier water barometers (also known as â€Å"storm glasses†) date from the 17th century. The mercury barometer was invented by the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608 – 1647), a pupil of Galileo, in 1643. Torricelli inverted a glass tube filled with mercury into another container of mercury; the mercury in the tube â€Å"weighs† the air in the atmosphere above the tube. The aneroid barometer (using a spring balance instead of a liquid) was invented by the French scientist Lucien Vidie in 1843. BATTERY: A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Each battery has two electrodes, an anode (the positive end) and a cathode (the negative end). An electrical circuit runs between these two electrodes, going through a chemical called an electrolyte (which can be either liquid or solid). This unit consisting of two electrodes is called a cell (often called a voltaic cell or pile). Batteries are used to power many devices and make the spark that starts a gasoline engine. Alessandro Volta was an Italian physicist invented the first chemical battery in 1800. Storage batteries : are lead-based batteries that can be recharged. In 1859, the French physicist Gaston Plante (1834-1889) invented a battery made from two lead plates joined by a wire and immersed in a sulfuric acid electrolyte; this was the first storage battery. BUNSEN BURNER: The laboratory Bunsen burner was invented by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen in 1855. Bunsen (1811-1899) was a German chemist and teacher. He invented the Bunsen burner for his research in isolating chemical substances – it has a high-intensity, non-luminous flame that does not interfere with the colored flame emitted by chemicals being tested. CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE: A Cassegrain telescope is a wide-angle reflecting telescope with a concave mirror that receives light and focuses an image. A second mirror reflects the light through a gap in the primary mirror, allowing the eyepiece or camera to be mounted at the back end of the tube. The Cassegrain reflecting telescope was developed in 1672 by the French sculptor Sieur Guillaume Cassegrain. A correcting plate (a lens) was added in 1930 by the Estonian astronomer and lens-maker Bernard Schmidt (1879-1935), creating the Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope which minimized the spherical aberration of the Cassegrain telescope. CELLOPHANE: Cellophane is a thin, transparent, waterproof, protective film that is used in many types of packaging. It was invented in 1908 by Jacques Edwin Brandenberger, a Swiss chemist. He had originally intended cellophane to be bonded onto fabric to make a waterproof textile, but the new cloth was brittle and not useful. Cellophane proved very useful all alone as a packaging material. Chemists at the Dupont Company (who later bought the rights to cellophane) made cellophane waterproof in 1927. CELSIUS, ANDERS: Anders Celsius (1701-1744) was a Swedish professor of astronomy who devised the Celsius thermometer. He also ventured to the far north of Sweden with an expedition in order to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, later comparing it with similar measurements made in the Southern Hemisphere. This confirmed that that the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid which is flattened at the poles. He also cataloged 300 stars. With his assistant Olof Hiorter, Celsius discovered the magnetic basis for auroras. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE: Zacharias Janssen was a Dutch lens-maker who invented the first compound microscope in 1595 (a compound microscope is one which has more than one lens). His microscope consisted of two tudes that slid within one another, and had a lens at each end. The microscope was focused by sliding the tubes. The lens in the eyepiece was bi-convex (bulging outwards on both sides), and the lens of the far end (the objective lens) was Plano-convex (flat on one side and bulging outwards on the other side). This advanced microscope had a 3 to 9 times power of magnification. Zacharias Janssen's father Hans may have helped him build the microscope. DA VINCI, LEONARDO: Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was an Italian inventor, artist, architect, and scientist. Da Vinci had an interest in engineering and made detailed sketches of the airplane, the helicopter (and other flying machines), the parachute, the submarine, the armored car, the ballista (a giant crossbow), rapid-fire guns, the centrifugal pump (designed to drain wet areas, like marshes), ball bearings, the worm gear (a set of gears in which many teeth make contact at once, reducing the strain on the teeth, allowing more pressure to be put on the mechanism), and many other incredible ideas that were centuries ahead of da Vinci's time. DAVY, HUMPHRY: Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) was an English scientist who invented the first electric light in 1800. He experimented with electricity and invented an electric battery. When he connected wires from his battery to two pieces of carbon, electricity arced between the carbon pieces, producing an intense, hot, and short-lived light. This is called an electric arc. Davy also invented a miner's safety helmet and a process to desalinate sea water. Davy discovered the elements boron, sodium, aluminum (whose name he later changed to aluminum), and potassium. EDISON, THOMAS ALVA: Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) was an American inventor (also known as the Wizard of Menlo Park) whose many inventions revolutionized the world. His work includes improving the incandescent electric light bulb and inventing the phonograph, the phonograph record, the carbon telephone transmitter, and the motion-picture projector. Edison’s first job was as a telegraph operator, and in the course of his duties, he redesigned the stock-ticker machine. The Edison Universal Stock Printer gave him the capital ($40,000) to set up a laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, to invent full-time (with many employees). Edison experimented with thousands of different light bulb filaments to find just the right materials to glow well, be long-lasting, and be inexpensive. In 1879, Edison discovered that a carbon filament in an oxygen-free bulb glowed but did not burn up for quite a while. This incandescent bulb revolutionized the world. ELION, GERTRUDE: Gertrude Belle Elion (January 23, 1918 – February 21, 1999) was a Nobel Prize winning biochemist who invented many life-saving drugs, including 6-mercaptopurine (Purinethol) and 6-thioguanine (which fight leukemia), Imuran, Zovirax, and many others. Elion worked at Burroughs- Glaxo Wellcome for decades (beginning in 1944) with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, with whom she shared the Nobel Prize. She is named on 45 patents for drugs and her work has saved the lives of thousands of people. ENIAC: ENIAC stands for â€Å"Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. † It was one of the first all-purpose, all-electronic digital computers. This room-sized computer was built by the physicist John William Mauchly (Aug. 30, 1907 – Jan. 8, 1980) and the electrical engineer John Presper Eckert, Jr. (April 9, 1919 – June 3, 1995) at the University of Pennsylvania. They completed the machine in November, 1945. FARNSWORTH, PHILO T. : Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971) was an American inventor. Farnsworth invented many major major components of the television, including power, focusing systems, synchronizing the signal, contrast, controls, and scanning. He also invented the radar systems, cold cathode ray tube, the first baby incubator and the first electronic microscope. Farnsworth held over 300 patents. FOUCAULT, JEAN: Jean Bernard Leon Foucault (1819-1868) was a French physicist who invented the gyroscope (1852) and the Foucault pendulum (1851). A gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel set in a movable frame. When the wheel spins, it retains its spatial orientation, and it resists external forces applied to it. Gyroscopes are used in navigation instruments (for ships, planes, and rockets). Foucault was the first person to demonstrate how a pendulum could track the rotation of the Earth (the Foucault pendulum) in 1851. He also showed that light travels more slowly in water than in air (1850) and improved the mirrors of reflecting telescopes (1858). FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN: Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706-April 17, 1790) was an American statesman, writer, printer, and inventor. Franklin experimented extensively with electricity. In 1752, his experiments with a kite in a thunderstorm (never do this, many people have died trying it! ) led to the development of the lightning rod. Franklin started the first circulating library in the colonies in 1731. He also invented bifocal glasses and the Franklin stove. The idea of daylight savings time was first proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1784. GALILEI, GALILEO: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. Galileo found that the speed at which bodies fall does not depend on their weight and did extensive experimentation with pendulums. In 1593 Galileo invented the thermometer. In 1609, Galileo was the first person to use a telescope to observe the skies (after hearing about Hans Lippershey's newly-invented telescope). Galileo discovered the rings of Saturn (1610), was the first person to see the four major moons of Jupiter (1610), observed the phases of Venus, studied sunspots, and discovered many other important phenomena.

Free Essays on Egocentric America

The American school setting is the perfect environment for the egocentric self to be learned by children and is clearly opposed to the development of a sociocentric self. From the first day of nursery or even before that, children are all considered special, in their own way, which sets each one apart from everyone else. Schools particularly reinforce the belief of individualism and competitiveness in almost every aspect of the American school day. This is key to American society due to the fact that success here is based on standing out from everyone else and incorporating the aspects of assertiveness, intelligence, uniqueness, and common sense. In the early elementary school years of childhood development in America, children as â€Å"individuals† get focused on by the teacher. This is established by one on one interaction between the student and teacher relationship, that is children need personalized attention and not only focusing on the â€Å"whole† mentality. Demand for smaller class sizes emphasizes this. Another example that could be provided for the egocentric self is the rewards a student will receive if they strive for the best, in the giving out of gold stars. Many American school teachers reward a child’s successful homework, project, participation, friendliness, etc. with the â€Å"gold star.† Either in the teacher’s book or better yet, on a chart displayed for everyone to view, are how many stars each child has. Some children will receive more stars than others, thus receiving more praise, rewards, and self fulfillment from both teachers and parents who reestablish their chi ld’s individuality. This conditioning process clearly promotes each child to strive for more stars, to be the best, to stand out from the crowd and proclaim his or her own uniqueness. Upon later years of schooling, the egocentric teachings in America become more prevalently displayed, accepted, and incorporated in each individual student. Gold... Free Essays on Egocentric America Free Essays on Egocentric America The American school setting is the perfect environment for the egocentric self to be learned by children and is clearly opposed to the development of a sociocentric self. From the first day of nursery or even before that, children are all considered special, in their own way, which sets each one apart from everyone else. Schools particularly reinforce the belief of individualism and competitiveness in almost every aspect of the American school day. This is key to American society due to the fact that success here is based on standing out from everyone else and incorporating the aspects of assertiveness, intelligence, uniqueness, and common sense. In the early elementary school years of childhood development in America, children as â€Å"individuals† get focused on by the teacher. This is established by one on one interaction between the student and teacher relationship, that is children need personalized attention and not only focusing on the â€Å"whole† mentality. Demand for smaller class sizes emphasizes this. Another example that could be provided for the egocentric self is the rewards a student will receive if they strive for the best, in the giving out of gold stars. Many American school teachers reward a child’s successful homework, project, participation, friendliness, etc. with the â€Å"gold star.† Either in the teacher’s book or better yet, on a chart displayed for everyone to view, are how many stars each child has. Some children will receive more stars than others, thus receiving more praise, rewards, and self fulfillment from both teachers and parents who reestablish their chi ld’s individuality. This conditioning process clearly promotes each child to strive for more stars, to be the best, to stand out from the crowd and proclaim his or her own uniqueness. Upon later years of schooling, the egocentric teachings in America become more prevalently displayed, accepted, and incorporated in each individual student. Gold...

Apple Incorporation. Overview of the Company and its Major Operations Research Paper

Apple Incorporation. Overview of the Company and its Major Operations - Research Paper Example The influence of Steve Jobs in the company and the development of â€Å"i† series products etc are explained in detail in this article. Kim R (2010) Apple Passes Microsoft As Top Tech Company, Retrieved from http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/05/26/BUDJ1DL0IU.DTL This article provides details about the achievements of Apple company in the recent past. It compares Apple’s performances against the performances of the competitors. Moreover it provides more details about Apple’s strengths and business strategies which helped it to become the number one technological company in the world. Krazit, T (2008). Apple's Mac Strength Could Keep Tech Industry on a Rol. Retrieved from http://news.cnet.com/8301-13579_3-9926068-37.html This article mainly focusses on Apple’s financial performances in the recent past. It says that apple is one among the few American companies which escaped from the recent recession. It analyses the performances of appleà ¢â‚¬â„¢s different business units individually to get more comprehensive picture about apple’s performances as a whole. Apple and Environment (2011), Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/environment/ This article is taken from Apple’s own website. It says many things about the commitments of Apple in maintaining sustainable business practices. It says that apple has better knowledge about the environmental impacts caused by their activities and they are taking every possible step to reduce environmental problems as much as possible. Steve Jobs Issues Statement on Apple’s Environmental Commitments (2007), Retrieved from http://www.texasenvironment.org/pr_story.cfm?IID=342 This article analyses the reliability of Apple’s claims as an environmentally friendly company with the help of some statistical analysis. It compares Apple’s environmental protection activities against similar activities of other companies. Overview of the company and its major ope rations and challenges it faces â€Å"Apple was founded in Cupertino, California on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne to sell the Apple I personal computer kit† (Apple Inc. History, 2008). It is currently the second largest company in the world in market capitalization and also the most valuable technological company in the world (Kim 2010). Apple faced many challenges in the past mainly because of the stiff competition from Microsoft. However, they were able to bounce back with the introduction of its â€Å"i† series produces such as iMac, iPhone, iPad, iPod iTune etc at the begging of the twenty first century. Apple is the number technological company in the world now and consumers all over the world rates apple products above its competitor’s products. Krazit (2008) has pointed out that the Wall Street is expecting Apple to report â€Å"earnings per share of $1.07 on revenue of $6.9 billion in 2008†. In his opinion â€Å"App le is a company which is under-promising and over-delivering† (Krazit, 2008).   Its founder and charismatic leader Steve Jobs passed away recently and many people have the belief that the loss of Steve may affect Apple immensely in future. It should be noted that Apple was one the verge of closing down during the latter part of twentieth century when Steve stayed away from the company for a while. A suitable replacement for Steve is the major challenge facing by Apple at present. Analysis of Apple’s efforts to improve/promote environmental sustainability   Apple follows sustainable business practices which helped them to become one of the topmost companies in the world. Apple has comprehensive knowledge about the environmental impacts caused by their activities. According to Apple’s claims Apple products are â€Å"

Obesity Epidemic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Obesity Epidemic - Essay Example now been declared a worldwide epidemic by the World Health Organization, after research indicated that it parallels to around 265 million adults and children around 15 million, simply meaning that there must be something we ought to do in order to regulate this situation and work towards an obese free world (Debasis & Preuss 30). According to Debasis and Preuss (38), for the last thirty years, there has been a drastic increase especially in childhood obesity. People should be asking themselves why there must be such a situation today. Take into consideration the situation of Barry Austin; he believed in eating so much that at one point he was heard saying that food was his god! Just at a mere age of 29, he was having a weight close to 320kg! From his close study, it was revealed that Barry’s breakfast consisted of four packets of crisps and almost three quarters a box of biscuits of which he consumed all. During lunch, which was from the chip shop, he would add several plates of beans on toast, additional Crips, and fruit cakes. If he was taking tea, he would have 12 roast potatoes, pie, custard, vegetables and gravy and 5 lamb chops. All these would then be cleared down the threat by 11 liters of soda every day. With respect to Hatfield and Stanton, they explain that studies have shown that Americans are consuming their foods well but not wisely. They further explain that the food habits have been growing for Americans every now and then. This is due to their ignorance in consuming a balanced diet. Some biological factors such as genes and the history of the family tend to increase the chances of developing obesity. Emotional factors could also be a contributing factor to this world catastrophe. One unique thing with obesity is that it doesn’t discriminate age nor gender. It affects the young and the old, the women and the men, blacks and whites, meaning that every kind of person is affected (Stern & Kazaks, 108). Obesity has symptoms that most people

Macroeconomic Outlook for Oil Prices Owing to Unrest in the Middle Essay

Macroeconomic Outlook for Oil Prices Owing to Unrest in the Middle East - Essay Example So if for example, we choose to use oil as source of energy instead of thermal or wind, we are trading off thermal or wind for oil as source of energy. Economics is also about cost and benefit analysis. This is because when we try to solve our economic problems and make choices, we look at it through economic perspective by comparing the costs and benefits of our choices. By using oil for energy source means that its costs and benefits are favorable over the other alternatives, thermal and wind sources. B. Market, Demand and Supply Just like any good in the market, oil demand and supply are affected by several factors in the market. Any change in its demand and supply will affect its price and its impact will be felt by the whole economy as well. 1. Market Market is simply a mechanism or arrangement which brings buyers or demanders and sellers or suppliers of a good or service into contact with one another (McConnell and Brue 2002, 49). In this article, we will be analyzing the oil m arket, meaning the mechanism or arrangement where the exchange happens between the buyers and sellers of oil. Buyers or demanders are the ones who are willing and able to exchange their money for oil. On the other hand, sellers or suppliers are those who are willing and able to exchange their product which is oil for money. 2.Demand The report cited that the EIA forecasted demand for oil is usually in the middle of OPEC and EIA demand outlooks. Demand refers to the quantities of a specific good or service that people are willing to purchase at any given price during a specified time period, given other things being constant (Miller 2004, 99). When taken singly, it is referred to as the... This essay presents a comprehensive analysis of the factors, determining the oil price and its volumes of deliveries against the background of worsening political situation in the Middle East. Market is simply a mechanism or arrangement which brings buyers or demanders and sellers or suppliers of a good or service into contact with one another. Demand refers to the quantities of a specific good or service that people are willing to purchase at any given price during a specified time period, given other things being constant. Supply is the amount of a particular good or service a seller or supplier is willing and able to produce and make available for sale at specific price and time. The total of all the supply available in a market will be the market supply Prices affect market demand and supply but there are other factors present in the market that can cause changes and can determine market demand and supply. The surplus in oil stocks was forecasted because the demand is at slower rate than the production. So, if the oil suppliers will continue producing oil at the same rate as before, they will be producing more than what the oil demanders are willing to buy from them. This situation will result to a surplus of oil in the market. To at least decrease the amount of surplus and bring the production near to equilibrium, OPEC members agreed to cut their supply by setting output quotas. The expectations about the future economic condition cause consumers to cut their spendings.

How does the school X break down the language barriers for EAL Literature review

How does the school X break down the language barriers for EAL students in science lessons - Literature review Example ntially, due to the diverse population, teachers face a difficult challenge of teaching science to students with limited knowledge of the English language. It is important for teachers to identify ways of combating the language barrier so effectively facilitate students’ simultaneous acquisition of academic content. The use of instructional interventions facilitates learning of EAL students. Cummins observes that effective language interventions for ESL students are built on 3-pillars, that is, activating prior knowledge, access content and extending language (Cummins 1). Accessing prior knowledge involves utilising the student’s prior knowledge so as to facilitate learning. The author hypothesises that students tend to construct meaning to a scientific text by â€Å"bringing their prior knowledge of language, science, and of the world in general to the text† (Cummins 1). Therefore, by activating the students’ prior knowledge, teachers are able to validate ESL students’ background experiences and affirm their cultural knowledge. Moreover, through the use of methods such as visuals, dramatisation or other language-oriented activities, teachers can clarify the meanings of concepts and words thereby making the content accessible (Cummins 2). The students’ visualisation can be enhanced through the use of models and analogies in the curriculum (EMA 2002:5). Arguably, models provide a scientific representation of abstract ideas and complex relationships that enable the EAL students unlock their potential in science while at the same time developing their scientific literacy (EMA 2002:5). According to EMA teachers, by actively engaging students in the use of models and analogies, EAL students can communicate their ideas confidently using scientific terminology. Moreover, teachers can encourage students to devise their models so as to facilitate understanding of the curriculum. Teachers play a detrimental role in assisting EAL students. In a research carried

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay One of the grimmest predictions about the future was described by Robert Putnam in his work on social capital. He envisaged low likelihood of participation in community life, smaller groups of friends, even less happiness, and lower perceived quality of life (Putnam, 1995). Furthermore, the enthusiasts of globalization and internet predicted that since people do not have to be together in order to work together, so simply they will not be (Florida, 2003). Both of these statements are deemed fallacious when recent innovative developments like coworking spaces are considered. Instead of dividing people and further rupturing community life, they reintroduce collaboration and community building through establishing an innovative office design that is being implemented worldwide. This paper will be based on theoretical definition of social movement by Mario Diani (2000). The reasoning why this definition is the most useful will be presented in following sections. Then, Dianis (2000) defining attributes will be applied to coworking as a movement, and from this analysis, the conclusion will naturally flow that the following thesis is supported: coworking can be seen as a social movement because it satisfies its definitional elements i.e. networks of informal integration, shared beliefs and solidarity, and collective action. For the analysis of coworking, mixed methodology will be used: informal observation and interviews at three coworking spaces: betahaus Berlin, Hub Amsterdam, Coworking Cologne, and one emerging coworking space Hub Berlin. Additionally, available secondary sources will be analyzed: research and case studies present in literature, internet network data, websites, and forums. The focus will be, however, on the internet sources due to the novel ty and continuous transformations of the movement. Coworking has been present for centuries, but the first forms of collaboration appeared in the beginning of the 20th century. Artists from around the world gathered in Paris to live and work. One of the establishments, La Ruche, was created by Alfred Boucher to accommodate live/work space for artists. The place became a community and was centred on work of its residents (Jones, Sundsted, Bacigalupo, 2009). Bizzarri (2010) mentions associated offices that appeared in United States of America during the crisis of 1929. These offices gathered workers from the same or various professions working in one office as a cost-cutting strategy. She links the crisis of 1929 to the recession of 2008 as a catalyst of bourgeoning coworking spaces around the world (Bizzarri, 2010). The term coworking was first used by Bernie DeKoven in 1999 to describe virtual connectivity i.e. online tools of collaboration (DeKoven, 2000). In a context of a physical space, it was used by Brad Neuberg in 2005 (Alas, 2010) even though coworking spaces, in fact, already existed before that time. The vigorous spread of coworking did not start until the already mentioned crisis of 2008. Nowadays, it is extremely hard to assess the size of the movement with different incarnations of coworking emerging. For example, Centre for Social Innovation in Toronto was launched in 2004 and merges both coworking philosophy and multi-tenant nonprofit centre principles (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010). What exactly is coworking? It can be used in three different ways as Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) state: [As] a proper noun to describe a movement the core values of coworking are A verb to describe an activity Im coworking with my friends at local cafe. An adjective to describe a space Souk is a coworking space in Portland' (p. 8). Movement Coworking movement has many principles that are shared between its members. The main value is that coworking spaces are about social connectedness, gathering, sharing, and collaborating. There are, however, a number of conditions that must be satisfied, in order for a viable coworking space to operate. Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) describe it as a coworking recipe: Start with community. Blend like-minded people of different backgrounds together thoroughly. Add openness. Share ideas, thoughts, knowledge and problems in equal parts. Sprinkle collaboration on top. Ingredients will meld together to create new flavour. Add healthy amounts of sustainability. This will help maintain the recipes structure and prevent it from falling apart. Wrap in accessibility. Make sure all ingredients are given proper opportunity to interact. Enjoy! (p. 15) The movement build on such principles also is directed against isolation that streams from the type of work the coworkers are performing. Usually, it is some form of knowledge creation, data transformation, or a creative industry-related work. Sometimes, the members of the movement express unacceptability of corporate culture and its work structure (typical 9-5 jobs in artificially separated cubicles). Coworking as a movement has either outspoken or implied social change as a value. First of all, it is changing work/live relationship, and leads to sustainability in many ways. Second, the coworking members work often on projects related to social innovation and change. The honourable mention of social change-related coworking spaces is network of the Hubs (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010)Â  [2]Â  . Bizzarri (2010) underlines that one of the innovative factors of coworking is the sociality of the work and the value of relations face to face (p. 204). This aspect is crucial in coworking movement, because its enthusiasts aim at creating a thriving community rather than simply a workplace. Activity As previously mentioned, coworking incorporates individuals with mostly knowledge creation type of work and designers or artists. In most cases, they are not employed by the same organization, but sometimes small businesses are a part of a coworking space. Additionally, there is a high degree of independent work involved, but there is also a collaboration factor. People from different professions and types of work engage in dialogue, exchange ideas, and add an interesting perspective to problems defined by others, in order to create innovative ideas and become more productive. Coworking space becomes a place where unlimited intellectual resources are stored, and it multiplies ones network of professional and informal connections which is beneficial to individual work life and mental health. Various individuals have different patterns of use of coworking spaces. Freelancers sometimes need only a desk with internet connection and a telephone. Artists might need bigger space and flexibility. Some might use coworking spaces on a full-time or part-time basis, and some only for once in a while drop-in sessions. These offices also target people (so called nomad workers) who travel and frequently change their place of living so they cannot maintain an office. This initiative has also a myriad of occupations, and they include professionals from diverse sectors. Additionally, they come from different organizational structures: start-ups that cannot afford and office yet, small businesses that choose not to have own office, non-profits, freelancers, sometimes individuals that work for large companies as consultants, etc. Space The organization of the shared working environment is very important for a proper operation of a coworking office. Hibbert, Kimble, and White (2010) from the School of Architecture and Design at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee wrote an engaging manual on designing a coworking space with a number of technical pointers. In general, it should be flexible and have an open design, so it can accommodate many different events and activities through moving furniture, and separators that play a role of walls. Additionally, coworkers should have access to it at any time of day or night which sometimes is not possible due to security concerns. Coworking spaces usually have following amenities: internet, photocopy and printing, fax machines, mailbox, kitchen facilities, meeting rooms, coffee/tea machines, storage, and sometimes audio-visual equipment. Spaces at different stages of development might not have all of mentioned amenities or have more advance office equipment. Coworking spaces can accommodate members by offering them private storage place, or sometimes offer them separate office depending on the characteristics of the space. Different patterns of use mean different level of financial contribution for the maintenance of the office. Coworking spaces have a tiered system depending on the amount of time spent at the office, and sometimes the area needed for operations. Usually, coworking spaces do not make a profit, and at times they can run only with the help of grants and subsidies. Social Movement Definition A lot of social and political phenomena have been called social movements in the past, many of them not rightfully. There are so many theories that it is very difficult to pinpoint the exact definition of a social movement. Theoretical frameworks like collective behaviour, relative deprivation, resource mobilization, rational choice, political opportunity structure, new social movement, political process, and framing, all of them define social movements in diverse ways and focus on their different facets (Pickvance, 2003). Many buzz words surround the term social movement: collective action, social change, status quo, and social conflict among others. These terms are themselves difficult to define. Therefore, the plethora of ambiguities allows for calling numerous phenomena social movements, when they are really not. Mario Diani (2000) in his paper The concept of social movement analyzes four different theories in order to find a common thread between them and to arrive at all-encompassing, but yet detailed definition of the notion. The author bases his definition of collective behaviour perspective (Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian), resource mobilization theory (John McCarthy and Mayer Zald), political process approach (Charles Tilly), and new social movements theory (Alain Tourraine and Alberto Melucci). Some of these theories are contradictory in their assumptions and definitional elements. For example, Charles Tillys definition is very constrictive while it focuses on the excluded as the ones trying to get access to established polity and political process (Tilly, 1978 cited in Diani, 2000) which would be only one type of social movement according to other theories. Melluci (1977, cited in Diani, 2000), conversely, sees them as not always concurrent with political conflict, but that they might be dormant and engaged in cultural production. Diani (2000) posits that all of these theories focus on different aspects of social movements; resource mobilization theory and the political process approach look at their development rather than the causes of their emergence. New social movement theory tries to place social movements within larger structural and cultural changes (Diani, 2000). Even though these four theories might be different in certain aspects, Diani finds four common threads that all of the theories emphasize: Networks of informal interaction Shared beliefs and solidarity Collective action on conflictual issues Action which displays largely outside the institutional sphere and the routine procedures of social life (p.162) The last factor, lack of institutionalization, is disputed by Diani, who believes that some degree of institutionalism might play a role in social movements development while some movement begin in institutionalized organization or maintain the movement in a dormant stage under auspices of an institution still exerting social change and cultural production. Therefore, it is not included in the final definition. Diani presents a caveat that the institutionalization is a factor that should be closely observed because it might overpower the influence of a social movement. Additionally, an important distinction is made: while Sierra Club might be a part of an environmental social movement, itself it is not social movement and should not be regarded as such. Furthermore, political parties fulfill the requirements of Dianis definition, but he underlines that they act at the level of interest representation, and this functional level does not let them to be regarded as social movements. Fro m the discussion on these aspects and other implications of theoretical boundaries, Diani (2000) arrives at following definition: Social movements consist in networks of informal interaction between a plurality of individuals, groups and organizations, engaged in a political and/or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity (p. 168). Diani (2000) disregards a number of characteristics in his definition that are usually associated with social movements i.e. extra-institutional tactics, civil unrest, disruptive political protests, use of power, etc. He claims that these aspects are simply characteristics of the varieties of social movements, and should not be included in the main and all-encompassing definition. Similar to Diani, definition of Goodwin and Jasper (2009) sees longevity of a movement more important than protests or riots: Social movements are conscious, concerted, and sustained efforts by ordinary people to change some aspect of their society by using extra-institutional means. They are more conscious and organized than fads and fashions. They last longer than a single protest or riot. There is more to them than formal organizations, although such organizations usually play a part. They are composed mainly of ordinary people as opposed to army officers, politicians, or economic elites. They are protesting against something. (Goodwin Jasper, 2009, p. 3) Therefore, the definitions are comparable and do not invalidate other theorists claims. In some degree, Goodwin and Jasper (2009) put more importance on extra-institutional means, protests, and riots; however, this does not make Dianis claims (2000) unsound, but further strengthens its validity and all-encompassing nature; in effect, this theoretical basis will be used to analyze coworking as a social movement. Urban Social Movements Urban social movements are a type of social movements that focus on structural transformation of the urban system and space (Castells, 1977 cited in Pickvance, 2003). Interest in this type of movements has been quite strong, but partially separated from the main discourse on social movements. As Pickvance (2003) discusses, urban social movements theories place emphasis on the effects rather than mobilization factors or the interaction between social movement and political systems. The intrinsic focus of urban social movements theories is the effects of various events, protests, and exposure to given principles and values. Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) elaborates that the effects are rather seen in their potential rather than real outcomes. In other words, immediate consequences might be limited and not identifiable; however, changes in consciousness among participants and potential future support may be favourable to the viability of a social movement and the actual long term social changes. For this reason, writing on urban social movements was developing separately from the mainstream discussion on social movements, even though the main influence that contributed to its development was the rise of interest in new social movements. Pickvance (2003) elaborates: Although some writers have classed urban movements as new social movements, more usually urban movements have been categorized as an old social movement like the labour movement, because of the allegedly material character of their demands (p. 106) This typological distinction is quite important for the theoretical basis against which social movement might be tested against. It shows that social movements theories are diverse and that they describe approaches that result in dissimilar definitions. This predicament is important when discussing a given social movement that might fulfill the definitional elements of one theory and not the other. It also demonstrates that some social movement theories are developing outside the mainstream theoretical discussion, and a collective attempt at deriving a uniform definition is simply not present or still in very preliminary stages. Using Dianis definition (2000) presents a number of dangerous predicaments. It might seem too broad and all-encompassing. It puts emphasis on the common threads of the four main theories and presents relatively detailed boundaries of its definitional elements, however, there is still a degree of uncertainty and vulnerability in its possible use. Additionally, there is a tendency to use certain theories for movements with which we agree and different ones with which we disagree. In case of Diani, his definition is general, and different nuances are not accounted for in it, therefore, it might be quite unproblematic to recognize any movement or trend that resembles social movement as one of them. Application of the theoretical framework Common elements found by Dianis (2000) in the four main theories of social movements are to be examined in this section and applied to coworking as a potential social movement. Definitional nuances and evidence how coworking serves these elements are to be presented in an organized manner. First, coworking is recognized as built on the basis of networks of informal interaction. Second, shared beliefs of coworking as a movement are discussed: what they are and how they are implemented. Third, it will be shown to that extent social movements partake in collective action on conflictual issues and potential conflicts and adversaries will be identified. Finally, the relationship of the movement with institutional aspect and routine procedures of social life will be examined. Even though this last theme is not included in the final definition presented by Diani (2000), its evaluation is essential while it helps assessing coworking as a social movement against the theories that value lack o f institutionalization as an important feature of the definition. Networks of informal interaction First element of the definition concerns the relationship between its members: [it] is a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups, and/or organizations (Diani, 2000, p. 8). All thinkers in Dianis analysis realize the importance of networks. Also Goodwin and Jasper (2009) and Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) recognize informal interaction between people as an important requirement for a social movement. Especially, McCarthy and Zald (1977, cited in Diani, 2000) talk about different categories that characterize the organization of social movements: they mention social movement organizations, constituents, adherents, and bystander publics, all of them important members adding to the social movement. Diani (2000) characterizes this element as: Tightly clustered networks which promote the circulation of essential resources for an action (information, expertise, material resources) as well as of broader systems of meaning. Thus, networks contribute both to creating the preconditions for mobilisation and to providing the proper setting for the elaboration of specific world-views and life-styles (p. 163). Theorists in the recent time were discussing a lot about information flows in a network society. Castells (2001, cited in Bizzarri, 2010) pointed to the information and communication technologies as changing the relation between discretion and control in the organization of working. The most focus is placed on the value of knowledge, the role of knowledge as capacity of action, the openness, the mobility, the collaboration, the accumulation of social and cultural capital, the flexibility of workers to adapt their skills to different situations and jobs (Bizzarri, 2010, p. 198). Many pointed this innovativeness and its importance in workplaces. This notion is recently present everywhere, governments switch to network governance, participatory decision making, and horizontal collaboration. In this organizational setup, people from different sectors, organizations, occupations, and departments work together (citation needed somewhere here). A lot of these collaboration methods are cente red on the abilities of information and communication technologies. Coworking is based on this idea. It brings people with different experiences to a common space to work and socialize, but the technology is only a tool not a mean in coworking space. Centre for Social Innovation (2010) in the booklet Emergence stresses the importance of relying on a network as a strategy of well operating coworking space. The organizational design is structured on production, distribution, and access of information, all of the members of the space are supposed to learn from each other. It resembles a bit wikipidia model, or open-source software, where all of the interested individual contribute to create and accomplish bigger projects. Coworkers work on individual work assignments, and such an open structure of their work is simply not possible, however, there exists possibility to constantly consult with other and collaborate on each others project. People coexist in a physical space and that aspect is very important. Similarly to government-made horizontal collaboration, coworking spaces have usually flat organizational structure (Bizzarri, 2010), therefore there is no decision makers, all of the decisions are made communally. In some spaces, the governance structure might be rather heterarchycal, and it will have some members overseeing certain aspects of a coworking space, so, for example, there will be a person dealing with administrative side of coworking space operations, there might be a communications person, technical maintenance, cleanliness, etc. However, these positions are not introduced in order to create a hierarchy with some people in power or not, but is done to ensure adequate operations of a space. Many of the changes that are happening in organization theory come from a bigger movement of industrial changes that call for a networked interaction. Wilson (1995) underlines that the geography of a new competitive model is more flexible than mass production and involes creation of netoworks which is so important to innovation diffusion (p. 646). In fact, industrial districts that aggregate small and medium sizes enterprises are perfectly able to compete with large commercial firms (Wilson, 1995). This is due to their network character and sharing resources. Even though those firms might be centred in a given geographical region, they are still open for the global influences. Wilson (1995) mentions endogenous development approach which emphasizes the unique factors of the spatial milieu in which the activity occurs, while at the same time recognising the embeddedness in the larger structures (p. 649). Coworking is a space that does not enclose the members because their work focuses on external environments: clients, companies they work for, families, and friends. It is a system that brings them together and creates a community that shares many things. Coworking is not only about working in a shared space; it has also a social element to it. Endogenous development must include non-economic values a behavioural and socio-psychological change from homo economicus to homo sociales. John Friedman (1988) reflects the same idea when he calls for a transcendence of the division between life space and economic space (Wilson, 1995, p. 650). This is very important for people at coworking spaces. Coworking space is not only a place to work at and collaborate, it is also a place where people become socially involved with each other on a higher level than usual work places. Many coworking spaces have once or twice a week common meals, some of them even introduce that custom daily. This has profound effect on their relations. Addionally, coworking spaces introduce workshops and events that are not targeted at professional development only. They are also open to the community; so for example, they will invite a yoga instructor, or will have workshops on mental health, leadership, good food and living. In some degree, this agrees with Wilson (1995) discussion of regulationist writing that shows that the wage and strength of the union will decrease and more pressure will be focused on human development and less tangible factors than productivity: behaviour, cultural and social changes. In short, it is the beginning of change fr om the mechanistic and deterministic to holistic and interconnected (Wilson, 1995, pp. 653-654). Coworking spaces have this idea embedded in them. They are not workspaces anymore; they are a way of life. Shared beliefs and solidarity Social movements are characterized by the fact that its members share beliefs and a sense of belongingness which is definitely visible in coworking spaces. The boundaries of coworking spaces are not defined by the physical borders of the office, but by the collective identity shared by people who are members, visitors or simply supporters of a coworking space. Diani (2000) describes this aspect as: Collective identity is both a matter of self- and external definition. Actors must define themselves as part of a broader movement and, at the same time, be perceived as such, by those within the same movement, and by opponents and/or external observers. (p. 164) Collective identity helps to define the boundaries of the movement, but does not mean that the movement is homogenous. There is still a plethora of ideas, orientation, opinions, and perspectives in the coworking movement that can come from the shear fact that coworkers come from different occupations and are exposed to different theories, experiences, and perspectives. Citizen Space is one of the first coworking spaces. It was created in San Franscisco by the movement leaders Tara Hunt, Chris Messina and Brad Neuberg. Its website has a section entitled Our Philosophy and it contains Collaboration: One of the great benefits of working in a coworking space is that you will meet all sorts of people with all sorts of knowledge. Openness: We believe in transparency and openness. In a world where people are free, but ideas are not, only a few benefit. When ideas are free, everyone benefits. Therefore, we encourage open spaces and discussions. Sorry, no NDAs allowed.Community: We thrive on connections and mutual support here. It is important that everyone give into as well as benefit from the strong (international) community coworking has become. Accessibility: In order to be fully open, we must make the effort to be accessible to all. This means that we endeavor to create both a financially and a physically accessible space. We are committed to this prin ciple and welcome feedback on how we can make it even more accessible. All of those values are shared between other members of the coworking movement. These are basic principles that spring from the model work that is present in the coworking spaces. Collaboration cannot be closed; it always has an open model. As Wilson (1995) named future innovations as a new sense of purpose and process on a local level (p. 645), this is in fact what joins those people together in a relatively uniform and with minimum conflict. The people that surround the movement are mostly creative workers that are new leaders in todays economy. They are mostly self-employed people, nonprofits, innovation searching individuals who in turn advance urban movements and economies (Schreck, 2006). This class of people, knowledge creators, Florida (2003) calls the creative class. They drive innovation and current global economic growth trends (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010). They are employed in many professions, but their main purpose is to create new ideas, technology and creative cont ent. In addition to changing the landscape of the economy, knowledge creators seek new ways to configure their work environment to promote individuality and allow for more flexibility. They demand the autonomy of working anywhere and the social interaction of a traditional office. (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010, p. 43) In general, it is the members of creative class who are the most prone to join the coworking movement. Additionally there is a degree of entrepreneurship present in coworking spaces. A lot of members are entrepreneurs, some of them focus on social change. It was the most visible in Hub Amsterdam where the wall of members highlighted the social change focus of its members. Coworking itself is entrepreneurial initiative, and therefore it characterizes its members. Diani (2000) puts a pressure on the entrepreneurial aspects of social movements by citing Gusfield (1981): Social movements condition and help constitute new orientations on existing issues, in so far as they contribute to the existence of a vocabulary and an opening of ideas and actions which in the past was either unknown of unthinkable (Gusfield, 1981, p. 325 cited in Diani, 2000, p. 9) Conclusion Paragraph of this section Collective action on conflitual issues Diani (2000) finds that all four theories share also an aspect of collective action on conflictual issues. He writes: Social movement actors are engaged in political and /or cultural conflicts, meant to promote or propose social change either at the systemic or non-systemic level (Diani, 2000, p. 166) This factor consists of two parts: collective action and conflictual issues and theorists differ in what exactly this means. Some theorists put a specific emphasis on conflict situation as a fundamental element of the concept (Turaine, Melucci, Tilly). Other look at the social movement as leading to social change and that is, according to them, the main aspect of the concept (Turner and Killian, McCarthy and Zald, Pickvance and Castells). There is a number of ways we can understand conflict. It can be a conflict on political, social, or cultural sphere, but it does not necessarily have to engage in an open conflict, protests, and active dispute at the systemic level. It might be also conflict with political decision makers, civil rights dispute, etc., but Diani (2000) also mentions: Several authors maintain that the true bulk of social movement experience has to be found in the cultural sphere; what is challenged is not only the uneven distribution of power and/or economic goods, but socially shared meaning s as well, that is the ways of defining and interpreting reality. Social movements tend to focus more and more on self-transformation. (p. 165) Therefore, social movements focus as well on conflicts that arise in a private sphere, on the individual level. It attacks the way we think about ourselves, our self-definition, and lifestyle choices. The second part of the actor is collective action which can be understood as some sort of activity that leads to achievement of a goal or a set of goals by more than one person, in this case, a social movement. Diani (2000) does not address the issue whether the activity should be overt and proclaimed. Dormant social movements might not actively engage in open collective action, but might affect individuals in a more covert way, similarly to how Pickvance (2003) describes the effects of urban social movements. This might not be an issue for Diani (2000) however; some caution will be taken when a favourable judgement is granted in the absence of full evidence. In regards to conflict and collective action, coworking as a social movement has not, in some degree, openly proc